March 2009 - Volume 3, Issue 2

DOMESTIC ENERGY AND THE HEALTH PROBLEMS OF MAN AND ANIMALS

	1. Enwereji, E. E. (corresponding author) College of Medicine Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria. 2. Ezeama, Matina C. College of Medicine Imo State University Owerri, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT Pollutants produced by several types of domestic energy could have adverse effects on the health of living things especially that of man and animals. The health problems found in human beings were that of chronic cough, eye irritation, headache, and others. These were common in individuals exposed to pollutants from coal and firewood. Similar health problems also occur in animals in environments where domestic energy is used. Common health problems found among animals were loss of ciliated epithelium in the upper respiratory tract, lysis of erythrocyte within alveolar capillaries and breakdown of capillary endothelium and others. However, one problem of this study is the dearth of literature on the health problems of living things exposed to domestic energy in Nigeria. There was little or no literature available for review at the time of study. The paper recommends a systematic collection of data on the health problems of living things exposed to chemical residues from different sources of domestic energy in Nigeria. This is necessary because research has shown that exposure to sources of domestic energy such as coal, kerosene, firewood, gas, sawdust and others, has adverse effects not only on the health of human beings but also on that of animals. Key Words: Exposure to domestic energy, erythrocyte, epithelium, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Domestic energy in this paper refers to substances such as coal, kerosene, firewood, gas, electricity, sawdust and others that are used for generating energy in homes. The paper documents the various pollutants these sources of energy emit and the resultant health problems on living things especially on man and animals. Studies by Coffin and Gardner, (1972) and Graedal, (1978) have shown that domestic sources of energy also produce chemical residues, which destroy plant growth. Plants produce oxygen for respiration (Coffin and Gardner 1972). The destruction of plants causes depletion of the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere. This depletion of the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere the studies uphold, adversely affect the respiratory systems of both man and animals (Goran, 1995, Radim, 1966 and Yoko (1974). The studies further showed that gases emitted from domestic energy directly or indirectly affect the health of women more than that of other users. The studies argued that the gender roles women take on; expose them to the hazards of different sources of domestic energy more than men. As such, women more than men are at risk of the effects of the pollutants emitted by domestic sources of energy. Studies by Goldberg (1996) and Spin et. al. (1993) confirm the findings of Gorna (1995) and Yoko (1974) that the gender roles women take on expose them to the hazards of different sources of domestic energy more than men. For instance, the findings of Spin et.al. (1993) Dejmek, et al. (1995) and Goldberg et al. (1996) maintain that some gases transverse the mammary gland especially that of nursing mothers and contaminate the breast milk thereby endanger the life of breastfeeding babies. Among the pollutants or chemical residues identified by these authors include sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds. These pollutants were found to accumulate in the body systems to form toxic levels (Rasmussen1992). The studies by Rasmussen (1992) and Nakazawa (1990) argue that individuals exposed to smoke from coal and firewood are particularly more at risk than others of developing nasal discharge, tachycardia (excessive rapid heart beat), asthma (asphyxia due to contraction of the airways) and phlegm (mucus secreted by the mucosa of the air passages).

Further evidence from Ko (1996) and Yoko (1974), showed that nitrogen oxide constitutes pollutants that adversely affect health by producing photochemical and other chemical agents that affect the respiratory system of man and animals. In man, nitrogen oxide causes fibrosis of the lungs, phlegm, chronic cough, breathlessness, ataxia, confusion, pneumonia, eye irritation, tachycardia, and arrhythmias. In animals, nitrogen oxide causes increase in the frequency of respiration, decrease in tidal volume as well as inflammation of cells in the tonsil. The findings of Klassen (1980) Nakazawa (1990), Romm and Ervin (1996) argue that indoor cooking with kerosene and gas stoves, produce pollutants that affect the health of living things as much as other indoor activities like cigarette smoking, using ultraviolet lamps, electrostatic precipitators, photocopying machines and odour control equipment. The findings of Nakazawa (1990) specifically confirm that while the pollutants produced by indoor cooking with kerosene and gas stoves are more of nitric oxide, and ozone, these indoor activities such as cigarette smoking, using ultraviolet lamps, electrostatic precipitators, photocopying machines and odour control equipment produce more of ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide than other gases. Evidence from Fetner (1962), Selevan (1995), White (1976), Stephen (1973) and Freeman (1973) confirm that the primary targets of ozone are the respiratory tract especially the pulmonary parenchyma and the reproductive system.

Exposure to ozone has various effects on living things. For instance, several findings reveal that in man, exposure to ozone causes metaplasia and fibrosis of bronchiolar epithelium (White 1976) as well as breakage of chromosomes ( Fetner 1962). In rats, it causes pulmonary oedema, while in dogs it results in haemorrhage and death ( Stephen 1973). Generally, ozone causes a reduction in the number of alveolar cells especially those that synthesize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) ( Selevan (1995). In guinea pigs, ozone causes increase in respiration as well as a decrease in tidal volume while in rabbits, exposure to ozone causes inflammation of the cells of the tonsil Freeman et.al. (1973). Also the studies by Yoko (1974) and Coffin (1972) reported that other gases like nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide also have effects on other laboratory animals. For instance, in cats, nitrogen dioxide caused erythrocyte lysis in alveolar capillaries and a breakdown of capillary endothelium (Yoko 1974).

In cats, exposure to sulphur dioxide results in swelling of type I alveolar cells as well as loss of ciliated epithelium while in rabbits, exposure to sulfur dioxide causes inflammation of the cells in the tonsil (Coffin 1972). Generally, the researchers observed that animals exposed to a mixture of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide had loss of phagocytic and macrophagic properties of the pulmonary alveolar cells as well as a complete loss of motor activities and that such animals suffered decrease in resistance to bacterial infections ( Coffin 1972 and Yoko (1974).

On the effects of exposure to carbon monoxide poisoning, the findings of Radim (1966) stressed that it produces carboxyhaemoglobin (irreversible combination with hemoglobin) as well as pneumonia, asthma, cardiovascular diseases, chronic cough, confusion, eye irritation, and non-productive cough. The aim of this paper is to highlight the health problems of man and animals, that are exposed to pollutants from various sources of domestic energy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Documents were reviewed in this study. In this review, the effects of exposure to various sources of domestic energy on the health of living things especially on man and animals were examined. In doing this, extensive review of relevant literature was done. This helped to unravel the specific health problems encountered by human beings and animals exposed to pollutants, emitted from various sources of domestic energy. In addition, the frequencies of the health problems as noted in the review were computed so as to give an overview of the magnitude of the problems in society.

These frequencies represent the compilation of various health problems of individuals reported in the literature reviewed.

These frequencies represent the compilation of health problems of experimental animals reported in the literature reviewed

ANALYSIS OF RESULT

The finding showed that exposure to pollutants from coal, firewood, gas, and kerosene stoves produced several health problems including influenza epidemics, pneumonia, asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases, chronic cough, wheezing, breathlessness, hair loss, ataxia, confusion, pneumonia, eye irritation, non-productive cough, tachycardia, arrhythmias and impaired lung function in man and animals. The study established that indoor activities like cigarette smoking and cooking with gas stoves produce nitrogen oxide, while ultraviolet lamps, electrostatic precipitators, photocopying machines and odour equipment increase the level of ozone in the atmosphere. These gases as produced, especially ozone, affect the respiratory tract particularly the pulmonary parenchyma, causing metaplasia, fibrosis of the bronchiolar epithelium, atelectasis, bronchopneumonia and emphysema. The study noted that ozone at 740g/m3 (0.37ppm), sulfur dioxide at 960g/m3 (0.37ppm) had synergistic actions and individuals exposed to them developed severe chronic obstructive lung diseases. In addition, the study confirmed that ozone induces chromosome breakage in man. The study established that increase in the levels of ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide in the environment killed green plants thereby giving rise to the depletion of oxygen in the atmosphere. In rats and dogs, the study found that exposure to ozone caused oedema in rats, haemorrhage and death in dogs. Generally, there was degeneration and destruction of type I alveolar cells as well as that of type II epithelial cells in both rats and dogs. Further findings showed that in cats, exposure to ozone resulted in loss of ciliated epithelium in the upper respiratory tract, swelling of type I alveolar cells, lysis of erythrocyte within alveolar capillaries, as well as complete loss of motor activities. Detailed analysis of the findings showed that exposure to ozone in both man and animals resulted in the reduction of alveolar cells particularly those that synthesize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). In guinea pigs, the finding identified increased rate of respiration and decrease in tidal volume. In rabbits, the study identified metaplasia and fibrosis of the lungs as well as inflammation of the cells in the tonsil. Further analysis on the effects of exposing experimental animals to ozone showed increase in the activities of the enzymes that protect against intracellular oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.

This effect was noted in the experimental animals both in vivo and in vitro. Also the finding showed that ozone reacted with the animals' body to produce free radicals that initiated peroxidation of other unsaturated fatty acids. In all, the animals with vitamin E deficiency were found more susceptible to the adverse effects of ozone than others. Further, the study found that some experimental animals lacked the ability to synthesize both deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) and as such, they were highly susceptible to bacteria and virus infections.

The study noted that lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases are common among individuals living in areas where no demarcation exists between plants and residential areas. The finding noted that gases like ozone, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide had lethal effects on green plants. This effect caused a reduction in the amount of oxygen the plants produced in the atmosphere. The study found that constant smoke/fumes from coal and firewood affect the respiratory organs as well as the reproductive system. It noted that 35% of men who by the nature of their jobs were constantly exposed to smoke /fumes from coal and firewood had reproductive health problems. About 45% of women whose husbands worked as Cooks and Stewards had problems with conception. Specifically, these men who worked as Cooks were diagnosed with low semen quality. The finding further confirmed that about 45 (55%) of the pregnant women living in areas where coal, during winter, was used to heat the living rooms had premature births, low birth weight babies, and miscarriages and that 69 (36%) of others whose pregnancies were carried to term had babies with congenital abnormalities.

The finding also noticed that individuals as well as animals exposed to ozone had difficulty in synthesizing DNA and RNA. Health problems like phlegm, chronic cough, wheezing, breathlessness, hair loss, ataxia, confusion, pneumonia, eye irritation, non-productive cough, tachycardia, arrhythmias and impaired lung function were common among individuals exposed to nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. The study noted that experimental animals when exposed to nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide developed several health problems. For instance, in cats, nitrogen oxide caused erythrocyte lysis with alveolar capillaries and a breakdown of capillary endothelium while exposure to sulfur dioxide resulted in swelling of type I alveolar cells as well as loss of ciliated epithelium. In rabbits, exposure to sulfur dioxide caused inflammation of the cells in the tonsil. Generally, animals exposed to nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide exhibited impaired phagocytic properties in the pulmonary alveolar macrophages and also had complete loss in motor activities. As a result, the animals suffered decrease in resistance to bacteria infections. The Tables below contain the compilation of the health problems of individuals and animals exposed to domestic energy as noted in the study.

DISCUSSION

The study highlighted the types of health problems human beings and animals experience when exposed to pollutants from different types of domestic energy. The finding showed that gas stoves, kerosene stoves, firewood, coal, electric stoves, cigarette smoking, ultraviolet lamps, electrostatic precipitators, photocopying machines and odour control equipment all emit ozone, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide which adversely affect health. The study found that exposure to coal and firewood produced more health problems than other types of domestic energy. This finding confirms that of Goran, et al. (1995), Romm and Ervin (1996), Selevan ,et al. (1995), and Spin, et al. (1993), which observed that exposure to smoke/fumes from coal and firewood produce more health problems than others and that the effects are more on the respiratory organs. Goran, et al. (1995), as well as Dejmek, et .al. (1995) Selevan et al. (1995) found adverse health effects on the reproductive systems. In man, exposure caused low sperm count while in women, exposure caused miscarriages and infertility. This health problem may be as a result of the large amounts of pollutants generated by burning coal and firewood, which were the main sources of energy used. Subsequently, coal and firewood produce more ozone and nitrogen oxide than other sources of domestic energy ( Coffin and Gardner 1972, and Goldberg et. al. 1996). These authors found that exposure to ozone and nitrogen oxide gives more health problems than other pollutants. Rasmussen (1992) identified that health problems like phlegm, chronic cough, wheezing, breathlessness, hair loss, ataxia, confusion, pneumonia, eye irritation, non-productive cough, tachycardia, arrhythmias and lung cancer were common among individuals exposed to ozone and nitrogen oxide.

Four important issues were noted in this study. First, respiratory tract mortality levels were significantly high in both man and animals. The study showed that the larger the amount of pollutants generated, the higher the respiratory tract mortality levels. This is consistent with the views of (Kagawa, and Toyama 1975, Ko 1996, Ng et.al.1993 Spin et.al. 1993 Freeman et.al.1973, and Yoko 1974). Secondly, the finding showed that exposure of man and animals to ozone reduces their resistance to bacterial infection. This observation agrees with that of Coffin, and Gardner (1972) Goran et al. (1995), White et al (1976) and Stephen et al.(1973) in which low immunity was noted as a result of the general impairment of the phagocytic properties of microphages on microorganisms. As a result, microorganisms continuously invade the immune system. The study found that in such animals, that they develop complete loss of motor activities. This view is consistent with that of (Coffin, and Gardner, 1972). Thirdly, exposure to high levels of pollutants directly reduces growth in children ( Kagawa. and Toyama 1975, longevity in adult) Graedal 1978, and Holland et al. 1979). Also, exposure to high levels of pollutants retard the sexual capacities in man ( Goran et. al. 1995, and Selevan et. al. 1995), and also that in animals ( Stephen et al. 1973, and Freeman et al. 1973). Exposure also increases miscarriages in women (Fetner et.al.1962 and Dejmek et al 1995). Additionally, this exposure caused mothers to give birth to children with congenital abnormalities ( Dejmek et al 1995). The study argues that this condition in which some babies were born with congenital abnormalities, may be as a result of the effects of ozone on chromosomes. Ozone induces the breakage of chromosomes by adversely affecting the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) in living things (Fetner et al 1962). The living things exposed to high levels of pollutants were susceptible to bacteria and virus infections. The findings are consistent with that of Stephen et al. (1973), Freeman et al. (1973), Yoko (1974), and Coffin and Gardner (1972) in which laboratory animals exposed to ozone and nitrogen oxide presented faulty motor activities. Finally, individuals exposed to pollutants from coal and firewood presented with similar health problems as those exposed to cigarette smoking, ultraviolet lamps, electrostatic precipitators, photocopying machines and odour control equipment. This agrees with the findings of Coffin and Gardner, (1972), Klassen (1980), Ng et al.(1993), and Radim et al.(1966).

Additionally, respiratory tract problems were common among individuals living in areas where there is no demarcation between plants and residential quarters. Specifically, lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases were common among individuals living in these areas. This condition may be as a result of the quantity of oxygen available to the lungs during respiration. The finding noted that gases like ozone, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide exterminate green plants thereby reducing the amount of oxygen that the plants can produce in the atmosphere. Depletion of oxygen levels in the atmosphere may reduce the amount of oxygen reaching the lungs during respiration. This can cause impaired lung function. This finding confirms that of (Ko, 1996, Nakazawa 1990 and Rasmussen, 1992).

The findings have important implications on the health status of all living things in Nigerian society. This is because many individuals especially in rural areas do not have clear demarcation between the living apartments and plants. In addition to this, most individuals who have no kitchen, cook under these trees. In many of the living quarters, ventilation is deficient and at times, people cook and sleep in the same room.

The study recommends educating individuals on the risks of excessive exposure to domestic energy. At the same time, since there is inadvertent exposure of individuals to domestic energy as a result of the living conditions and gender roles, the paper recommends periodic clinical and epidemiological studies to ascertain the extent of the problem in Nigerian society. This is necessary because the bulk of the study was from developed countries, with little or nothing from developing countries including Nigeria.

The paper also recommends cooking in the open and less crowded areas so as to enhance the atmospheric absorption of pollutants produced by the use of domestic energy.

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